Investigating multiscale meteorological controls and impact of soil moisture heterogeneity on radiation fog in complex terrain using semi-idealised simulations

Coupled surface–atmosphere high-resolution mesoscale simulations were carried out to understand
meteorological processes involved in the radiation fog life cycle in a city surrounded by complex terrain. The
controls of mesoscale meteorology and microscale soil moisture heterogeneity on fog were investigated using
case studies for the city of ¯Otautahi / Christchurch, New Zealand. Numerical model simulations from the synop-
tic to microscale were carried out using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model and the Parallelised
Large-Eddy Simulation Model (PALM). Heterogeneous soil moisture, land use, and topography were included.
The spatial heterogeneity of soil moisture was derived using Landsat 8 satellite imagery and ground-based me-
teorological observations. Nine semi-idealised simulations were carried out under identical meteorological conditions. One contained homogeneous soil moisture of about 0.31 m$^3$ m$^{−3}$, with two other simulations of halved and doubled soil moisture to demonstrate the range of soil moisture impact. Another contained heterogeneous soil moisture derived from Landsat 8 imagery. For the other five simulations, the soil moisture heterogeneity magnitudes were amplified following the observed spatial distribution to aid our understanding of the impact
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of soil moisture heterogeneity. Analysis using pseudo-process diagrams and accumulated latent heat flux shows significant spatial heterogeneity of processes involved in the simulated fog. Our results showed that soil mois-
ture heterogeneity did not significantly change the general spatial structure of near-surface fog occurrence, even when the heterogeneity signal was amplified and/or when the soil moisture was halved and doubled. However,
compared to homogeneous soil moisture, spatial heterogeneity in soil moisture can lead to changes in fog duration. These changes can be more than 50 min, although they are not directly correlated with spatial variations in soil moisture. The simulations showed that the mesoscale (10 to 200 km) meteorology controls the location of fog occurrence, while soil moisture heterogeneity alters fog duration at the microscale on the order of 100 m to 1 km. Our results highlight the importance of including soil moisture heterogeneity for accurate spatiotemporal fog forecasting.