Modeling and Fundamental Dynamics of Vacuum, Gas, and Antisolvent Quenching for Scalable Perovskite Processes

Hybrid perovskite photovoltaics (PVs) promise cost-effective fabrication withlarge-scale solution-based manufacturing processes as well as high powerconversion efficiencies. Almost all of today’s high-performancesolution-processed perovskite absorber films rely on so-called quenchingtechniques that rapidly increase supersaturation to induce a promptcrystallization. However, to date, there are no metrics for comparing resultsobtained with different quenching methods. In response, the first quantitativemodeling framework for gas quenching, anti-solvent quenching, and vacuumquenching is developed herein. Based on dynamic thickness measurementsin a vacuum chamber, previous works on drying dynamics, and commonlyknown material properties, a detailed analysis of mass transfer dynamics isperformed for each quenching technique. The derived models are deliveredalong with an open-source software framework that is modular and extensible.Thereby, a deep understanding of the impact of each process parameter onmass transfer dynamics is provided. Moreover, the supersaturation rate atcritical concentration is proposed as a decisive benchmark of quenchingeffectiveness, yielding≈10$^{−3}$−10$^{−1}$s$^{−1}$for vacuum quenching,≈10$^{−5}$−10$^{−3}$s$^{−1}$ for static gas quenching,≈10$^{−2}$−100s$^{−1}$for dynamic gas quenchingand≈102s$^{−1}$for antisolvent quenching. ... mehrThis benchmark fosterstransferability and scalability of hybrid perovskite fabrication, transformingthe “art of device making” to well-defined process engineering.