Consequences of nitrogen deposition and soil acidification in European forest ecosystems and mitigation approaches

European forests have experienced high nitrogen (N) deposition and soil acidification together with sulfur (S) deposition in the recent decades and are still facing challenges in some areas. In the context of elevated CO$_2$ and air temperature under climate change, the N deposition will initially promote the growth but in the long term it will accelerate nutrient imbalance and reduce tree health. Therefore, forest management must take these aspects into account. Many studies have been carried out on the effects of forest management approaches, i.e., liming, harvesting, and intercropping with other tree species on traits of trees, soil and ecosystem properties and fluxes, however, a comprehensive review summarizing the current consequences of nitrogen saturation and soil acidification in European forest, particularly if current forest management approaches are able to mitigate these consequences in the context of climate change, is still lacking. In our review, we summarize the consequences of N deposition and acidification on trees and soils of forest ecosystems, discuss the importance of the most commonly used management practices in mitigating these consequences, and provide information for future management practices in Europe.